The Latter Days of Progressivism

 Changes in Politics

1. 1. Political Reforms, in brief:
      1. Amendment 16 (1913): gave Congress right to levy income taxes
      2. Electoral Reforms:
         1. Australian ballot–secret ballot for elections
         2. Initiative laws gave power to voters to directly sponsor legislation and referendum laws gave voters the right to overturn laws passed by legislature
         3. Recall laws: gave right to recall elected officials
         4. Amendment 17 (1913): gave new structure to elect US Senators by popular vote for terms of 6 years, with 2 senators per state and each with one vote (previously senators were elected/appointed by the state legislatures)
         5. Municipal reforms: Government ownership/regulation of public utilities: water, sewer, electric; advent of the “City Beautiful” movement with beautification through parks, lakes, public playgrounds, sidewalks, nature trails, etc (middle class female reformers were largely in charge of this latter effort)
   2. A shift toward federal intervention in the marketplace and daily living, though still geared mostly to the administration and functions of government

 Breakdown of Two Progressive Presidents

Theodore Roosevelt (TR) and Woodrow Wilson

1. 1. Theodore Roosevelt (R, switched to Progressive Party by 1912)
      1. New Nationalism: emerged during TR’s bid for the presidency in 1912
         1. vision of strong federal government, led by an activist president, regulating and protecting various interests in society
         2. Platform called for woman suffrage, 8-hr day, prohibition of child labor, minimum wage standards for working women, an stricter regulation of large corporations (fits ideas of Progressive protective legislation and TR’s trust-busting)
   2. Woodrow Wilson (D) (1912-1920)
      1. New Freedom: platform of 1912 election, emphasized restoring conditions of free competition and equality for economic opportunity
         1. favored variety of Progressive reforms for workers, farmers, and consumers but argued against TR’s idea of a large paternalistic federal government
         2. Ironically, by the end of two terms, Wilson more like TR than not
      2. expanded TR’s idea of activist president, Wilson responded to pressure by lobbyists, Progressive reformers, and legislators by passing many reform proposals
         1. Underwood-Simmons Act (1913): reduced tariff rates on variety of raw materials and manufactured goods, imposed first graduated income tax (up to 6%) on personal incomes
         2. Federal Reserve Act (1913): restructured nation’s banking and currency system
            1. created 12 reserve banks, regulated by central board in Washington DC
            2. member banks required to keep reserve portion of cash supply in the Federal Reserve Bank in their district
            3. this created the modern “Fed” of today, which could raise and lower percentage of the reserves to encourage or discourage credit expansion by member banks
         3. Clayton Anti-trust Act (1914): replaced old Sherman Anti-trust Act as basic antitrust law
            1. reflected political clout of American Federation of Labor by exempting unions from being construed as illegal combinations in restraint of trade,
            2. it forbade federal courts to issue injunctions against strikers/labor protestors
         4. Federal Trade Commission (1914): gave federal government same sort of control over corporations that the Interstate Commerce Commission had over railroads
            1. permanent federal body designed to institute corporate oversight of businesses, superior to time-consuming and erratic trust-busting method

 Progressive Women and the “City Beautiful” Movement

1. 1. During this period, American women became more vocal in public than any previous generation. They sought to create a voice for their interests and that of their families while instituting change in their communities as well (a primary focus of the urban housekeeping ideal). The City Beautiful Movement, often called this due its aesthetic aspects, encompassed more than public appearance and sought to elevate the communities in which they lived to higher standards.
   2. Much of the reform work which fostered urban development/improvement of the early 1900s owed its success to that of hardworking, politically connected women who managed to manipulate the system (and their spouses) to achieve their goals. It is not that male politicians were unable or unwilling to make these changes; rather, these issues were considered secondary to the needs of administering government, public order/laws and finances.
   3. In response, these women formed social clubs and reform groups to lobby federal, state, county, and municipal governments to promote and implement most of the following issues. Their plan was to force politicians to recognize the necessity of these changes/standards, with varying levels of success and recognition. This is not a comprehensive list but does highlight some of their most important accomplishments which thereafter became fundamental elements of public concern:
      • sanitation (water, sewer, garbage collection)
      • public health, including health and hospital care for the poor and the early immunization effort
      • public libraries (most notably these libraries would be free to all, previous “lending libraries” were by paid subscription only and were generally segregated or outright excluded minorities—many public libraries in the South during this period would still be segregated or operate different hours/branches for African Americans but they were free and did allow citizens access to its contents) •settlement houses/technical training for the indigent and immigrant class
      • school funding for building expansion, textbooks, extracurricular activities, etc. •early childhood education; created kindergartens and early forms of pre-schools
      • orphanages/foster care
      • working conditions for women, usually focused on prevention of sexual abuse by male employers and health risks rather than wages
      • public parks, lakes, and playgrounds
      • transportation safety; sponsored initiatives to require sidewalks, speed limits, traffic lights, headlamps for vehicles, driver’s licenses, street lights, road repaving, and many more
      • historical preservation of public and private residences, battlefields, archival materials like letters and paintings, etc.
      • public museums; history, art, science, etc.
      • building codes and code enforcement; including fire safety/escape and prevention, home construction standards, minimum easement requirements, etc.
   4. The separation of spheres and cult of domesticity, however, were still very strong. While those women with wealth, leisure or lenient spouses who did not oppose their efforts achieved some success within this period, women in general were unable to realize true personal change in their domestic lives. While reformers made significant strides forward in public service and community welfare agendas, the social expectation of women and men’s roles did not truly begin to change until the mid-twentieth century.